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Part I - Linear Measurements
Part III - Volume Measurements
Click to see other articles in this series on weights & measurements.
GENERAL INTRODUCTION TO
STANDARDS OF WEIGHTS AND MEASUREMENTSThe governments of Spain and Mexico mandated a standard measuring system numerous times during the colonization period (1513-1834), but the mandates were generally ignored. Without standards in measurements there was no consistency in commercial trades and confusion and disputes were the result.
Provinces and localities in Spain, and later in Mexico, insisted on using their own standards. The primary reason for this insistence can be traced to the independence of the specialized guilds, each of which asserted its right to carry on practices peculiar to its own business. Regulations and ordinances for standardization regularly came down from Spanish authority, delivered by Counts and Viceroys, in the form of bandos (edicts or laws,) cédulas (decrees) and instrucciones (instructions); thus by 1513, the science of measurements (metrology) was born in Spain.
From 1513 to 1721, only incremental progress was made in enforcing the use of measurements from any standard. Up to 1803, establishing a metrology in the California province was next to impossible. Uniformity in measurements really began after Spain and Mexico adopted the metric system in 1867, but by that time California was no longer under Mexican rule and the Mission Period was over. (Stampa 1949:4-9; Bowman 1951:316-17)
A BRIEF STANDARDS HISTORY |
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|---|---|
| 1513 | Manuel Payno initiates June 18 law assuring a conquistador's right to a peonía de tierra, a little over 200,000 sq. varas (or about 35 acres) given to a foot soldier after the conquest and one caballería de tierra, (609,404 square varas or a little over 105 acres) given to a cavalryman, usually a knight or nobleman in the conquest. (Stampa, pp. 20-21) |
| 1524-1525 | Hernán Cortés writes the cédula that establishes the contraste (inspector of weights and measures). |
| 1536 | Viceroy Mendoza, observing that "in this city [Mexico] there exists no measure for measuring land," orders ordinances to construct a measure for this city as well as for all of New Spain. Unfortunately they are inadequate and lead to "great irregularities in the distribution and appropriation of landed estates." (Stampa, op. cit.) |
| 1543-1559 | The cabildo (town council) of Mexico City passes four municipal regulations to ensure that weights and measures are secured and uniform for the protection of the public from fraud. |
| 1556 | The alcalde (foreman or administrator) Bernardino de Albornoz orders from Spain sealed and certified "standards." |
| 1567 | The Conde de Falces revalidates the viceroy's agrarian measures. The royal order is the first enactment for laying out numerous land grants in the 16th century. The Count also orders a new sealing and marking of weights and measures, announces penalties for infractions of the laws, and fixes tariffs for inspecting measures. Indian village and public grazing lands (ejidos,) once 1,200 vara-squared plots, change to 500 varas squared. (Stampa, p. 5-6, p. 22) |
| 1574 | The Conde de Monterey commands merchants and vendors to "...present their weights and measures to inspectors for adjustment and for marking with a seal, which the inspectors had for this purpose." (Stampa, p. 21) |
| 1589 | The Viceroy, Alvaro Manrique de Zúñiga, establishes the Vara de Burgos (later called the Vara de Castilla ) as Spain's standard yardstick and in time furnishes both a wooden and metal bar standard. Tradition has it that the "Spanish yardstick" was cut at an unknown date on the outer walls of the cathedral of Burgos. The use of the measure spreads over the provinces and to the New World; however, its length varies greatly. This standard and improved land measuring method lasts for many years. (Stampa, p. 3, 21; Bowman, p. 316) |
| 1620 | The Marqués de Guadalcázar issues ordinances that include twelve weights and measuring standards, and he has them placed in Mexico's archives. The ordinances also state that every merchant must have his weights and measures inspected and stamped every four months. (Stampa, p. 6) |
| 1657 | A law upgrades the native village and public grazing pastures, or ejidian lands, increasing their size from 500 to 600 varas squared. (Stampa, p. 22) |
| 1667 | The royal ordinance this year reaffirms the ordinance of 1620, requiring restamping every four months and prohibiting the breakage of seals or the use of any unsealed measures and scales in any type of business. (Stampa, p. 8) |
| 1687 | A royal cédula confirms the ordinances of 1567 and 1657. |
| 1720 | A real proyecto de comercio involves making rules for the payment of custom dues based on rates per cubic palmo, requiring clumsy conversions for weight measures. Accuracy is always in considerable doubt. The weights and measuring standard established in the 1620 ordinance is essentially retained. |
| 1721 | An official, scribed metal bar containing the Vara de Castilla is sent to the New World. |
From 1721 to the 1769 entrada, little is known of any mandatory standards sent to Alta California. The first reference to any problem related to measurements at the missions was made in 1775. Padre Junípero Serra complained of a discrepancy in the amount of grain he received, in fanegas, that he ordered while at Monterey, California. He estimated that he should have received 12 almudes to the fanega of grain, but instead received only 9-1/2 almudes per fanega from San Blas, Mexico. (Bowman, p. 318-19)In the cédula of 1801, Charles IV stated that for all the territories he ruled, weights and measures should be adjusted to bring into conformance the following standard: (Stampa, p. 3)
Linear measurements: the Vara de Burgos (from the standard kept in Burgos);
Dry measures: the half-fanega of Ávila;
Liquid measures: the Toledo cuartillo (from the standard preserved in Toledo);
Weights: the mark, from the standard mark in possession of the Council of Castile.
If any standards were used in California's province, they had fallen into disuse or were non-existent by the end of the 18th century. "In 1802 the viceroy (Félix Berenguer de Marquía) writes the governor (José Joaquín Arrillaga) that there were no measures for wheat and maize, nor for the vara, in California, and that he had ordered such units to be sent." (Bowman, p.316.)
By mid-1803, the requested weights and measures arrived in Monterey. In June, Governor Arrillaga's instrucciones to the presidio comandantes were that: "...the new missions were to be used as models and for testing, that all missions and all persons were to use them, that they were to be introduced universally on a given day, that no one was to be permitted to sell goods with unsealed measures, and that different seals were to be used for the measures of wheat and corn." (Bowman, op. cit.)
Two-dimensional or area measurements used in Nueva España evolved as noted in the earlier ordinances and included the Vara de Burgos for their determination by the time the missions began. They were used to ascertain surface sizes for moderate to small measurements (square vara and less). Larger area measures related to common lands or agrarian needs, upwards to a square league or 5,000 varas squared, were commonly called sitio de ganado mayor, or simply sitio, and hacienda, which was five times larger than the sitio. Names were given to a wide range of multiples and divisions of the vara squared and sitio. These were necessary to accommodate flourishing businesses within a pueblo and expanding farming and mining interests.Physical measurement of the sitio came about during the late Mission Period when it became important to determine the size of lots for settlers, primarily soldados de cuero who had finished out their service with the Spanish army. More formally the Mexican law of 1824 and regulations of 1828 later established the yardstick to be used and how the measurements were to be taken.
Cordeleros (Re-enactment) The Pauley Photographic CollectionThe traditional account is that cord-bearers, usually two horsemen ( cordeleros) with long sticks attached by a cordel, rope or surveyor's chain made of sisal, hemp, hair, or occasionally rawhide, tied between them, made these measurements. The first horseman remained stationary with his stick planted firmly in the ground while the second galloped off along in a relatively straight line until the cordel was taut. Counting off, he then stuck his stick into the ground. Then the first horseman rode past the second rider to his 137-foot destination, thereby completing a cycle. It took many cycles to establish an edge, and at least two edges to calculate an area of measured land.
The cordel (also the measure's name) used to measure the sitio for cattle grazing areas was 50 varas long. Also, 10 vara cordeles were used for measuring sheep grazing plots, the criadero, and the 69 vara cordel was used (an even divisor) for making measurements of the caballería. The length of the "established" Vara, thus, was crucial to the accuracy of other lengths and areas dependent on it.
There were many other variables, such as going over rough terrain, marshes, streams and rivers, etc. that made calculations of the sitio, criadero, and caballería questionable. Many times these areas would be expressed and duly recorded with the words poco más o menos, a little more or less. (Bowman, p. 326)
In mission times, one of the most uniform units, in relation to a standard, was in fact, the vara, because these measures were etched on staffs kept in the offices of the alcaldes, with the strict rule that they had to be affixed with unbroken official seals. However, by the turn of the century (1800), the value of the vara measurement became so varied and numerous that confusion and conflicts emerged during the next fifty years. By the end of Mexico's rule, there were over twenty-two established values of the vara alone! (Wattles 1974). Any vara (many were just under 33 inches) close to 33 inches was considered valid until 1855, when the approximate 33-1/3 inch Texas-Spanish vara became the standard for U.S. land grant patents.
Small areas were simply the square of linear units, e.g., pulgada cuadrada or square inch, etc. Large areas for pueblo and farming measures were of two types: squares and rectangles (both with linear, usually vara squared or sitio units); in many cases, the name or idiomatic expression used to describe an area was based on the way the area was used. The almud and fanega were not only used for area measurements (vara cuadrada, sitio or acre), but also for capacity (medida de árido, bushel or volume) and for weights (arroba or pound), which will be described in Parts III and IV respectively.
USEFUL EQUIVALENTS
1 square vara = 1083 sq. in. = 7.52085 sq. ft.
1 meter = 39.39 in. = 1.1969 varas = 3.2825 ft.
1 hectare = 10,000 sq. meters = 107,639 sq. ft. = 2.471 acres
1 acre = 160 sq. rods = 43,560 sq. ft. = 4,047 sq. meters = 0.405 hectare
1 rod = 16.5 ft.= 5.029 meters
1 sq. mile = 640 acres = 102,400 sq. rods = 3,706,815 sq. varas = 27,878,400 sq. ft. = 2.590 sq. km.
| LARGE RECTANGULAR SPANISH AREA MEASUREMENTS (Large to Small) | :
|---|
| hacienda: 5,000 varas x 25,000 varas = 1.25x108 sq. varas = 21,581.87 acres = 33.72 sq. mi. = 8,734 hectares |
| caballería de tierra: 1104 varas x 552 varas = 609,408 sq. varas = 0.164 sq. mi. = 105.217 acres = 42.581 hectares (16th century) |
| suerte de tierra (1/4 caballería): 552 varas x 276 varas = 152,352 sq. varas = 26.304 acres = 10.645 hectares (16th century) |
| fanega de sembradura de maiz (1/3 suerte de tierra or 1/12 caballería): (Galván 1840) 276 varas x 184 varas = 50,784 sq. varas = 8.768 acres = 3.548 hectares |
| cuartilla de sembradura de maiz: 250 varas x 100 varas = 25,000 sq. varas = 4.162 acres = 1.884 hectares |
FANEGA DE SEMBRADURA (Area) |
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|---|---|---|
| The fanega de sembradura was an area of land on which a fanega (capacity) of grain could be sown. The size of the area fanega differed according to whether corn or wheat was grown. Since weather and climate highly affect the yield of any grain, the fanega was one of the most disputed measurements. A few (and there were many) fanega measurements, used for corn and wheat during colonization and after the American conquest, appear below. | ||
| de maiz (corn) |
de trigo (wheat) | |
| Gálvez (Baja California: 1768) |
3.472 acres | ____ |
| Neve (Alta California: 1781) |
6.94 acres (200 varas x 200 varas) |
1.8 acres |
| Probable in Alta California (Bowman, p.324) |
7.00 acres | 1.75 acres |
| Galván (1840) | 8.768 acres (184 varas x 276 varas) |
1.53 acres |
| Vallejo (Fort Ross:1841) |
____ | 0.40 acres |
| Law of 1857 | 8.81226 acres | ____ |
ALMUD DE SEMBRADURA (Area) |
The almud de sembradura was an area of land on which an almud (capacity) of grain could be sown. The area measurement was used primarily in private land-grant cases and mentioned occasionally in mission reports. The same difficulty in exactness due to growing conditions, climate, etc. arose for the almud as it did for the fanega. In practice, however, the 12 almudes to the fanega definition came about from the 1.6 bushels to the fanega capacity that Gov. Felipe de Neve had used. (N.B. Capacities fanega and cuartilla will be covered in Part III) | |
| de maiz (corn) |
de trigo (wheat) | |
| Neve (Alta California: 1781) | 0.578 acres | 0.15 acres |
LARGE SQUARE SPANISH AREA MEASUREMENTS (Large to Small) |
|---|
| sitio de ganado mayor (or simply sitio) 5,000 varas x 5,000 varas = 2.5x107 square varas = 100 cordeles (sitio) squared = 4,316.37 acres = 6.74 square miles = 1,746.81 hectares
A sitio or legua cuadrada (square league) was the most common term used for area measurements for land tracts, primarily for cattle ranching. The sitio was used for making measurements for Alta California usufructuary Rancho Grants during the Mission Period and for diseños (maps) made for Mexican Rancho grant petitions after secularization. |
| sitio de ganado menor: 3,333 1/3 varas squared = 1.1111x107 square varas = 1,918.39 acres = 776.36 hectares
A sitio de ganado menor was the most common term used for area measurements for land tracts, primarily for sheep ranching. |
| críadero de ganado mayor (1/4 sitio mayor): 2,500 vara x 2,500 varas = 6.25 x 106 square varas = 1,079.06 acres = 436.69 hectares
A críadero de ganado mayor was an area measure used for nurseries, breeding plots and stock farms. |
| críadero de ganado menor (1/4 sitio menor) 1,666 2/3 varas squared = 2.777x106 square varas = 479.59 acres = 194.09 hectares.
In addition to 1:4 ratios for (críadero mayor/sitio mayor) and (críadero menor/sitio menor) there were also 1:2.25 ratios for [sitio (menor/mayor)] and [críadero (menor/mayor)]. The críaderos were simply smaller area measures for stock breeding and nursery lands. |
| fundo legal para pueblos: 1,200 varas squared = 1.44x106 square varas = 248.62 acres = 100.62 hectares
A term used for the usual size of the pueblo square, consisting of the plaza, church, arsenal, main street, courthouse, jail, townhouse, building lots and ejidos. |
| solar or labor (1/25 sitio): 1,000 varas squared = 1.0x106 square varas = 172.65 acres = 69.87 hectares
The solar (also labor) was used almost exclusively for measurements associated with farms, house, or building lots granted to new settlers, which varied in size. Both names reflect the use of this measure. |
| suerte: 200 varas squared = 40,000 sq. varas = 6.912 acres = 2.798 hectares
The suerte was used to measure pueblo commons and small agricultural lots. Not to be confused with the suerte de tierra, about 26.3 acres, equaling a quarter caballería de tierra, used in payment to knights and noblemen after their service as conquistadores in the 16th century. |
| estajo: 100 varas x 100 varas = 10,000 square varas = 1.665 acres = 0.674 hectares |
| aranzada (marco real): 80 varas squared = 20 estadales squared = 6,400 square varas = 1.105 acres = 0.448 hectares
The aranzada was used for small surface measurements, approximating (by accident) an English acre. |
| sala para casa, molino, o venta (1/16 suerte): 50 varas squared = 1 cordel (sitio) squared = 2500 square varas = 0.432 acres = 0.1749 hectares
Literally a large room in the house, the sala was the term most often associated with measurements of a house lot in the pueblo; it was also used to establish sizes of mills and for open, unsheltered spaces, such as public lots for business. |
The following terms were used for the general description of farms, ranches and pueblo common areas and surrounding agricultural and livestock space. Those shown come from Hubert H. Bancroft, HISTORY OF CALIFORNIA, Vol. I, p.344, with additional pertinent references to this discussion found in Barnes, et al., 1981, Meigs, 1935 and Perez, 1996.
| dehesa: | Common pasture lands outside the ejidos. |
| ejidos: | Pueblo common areas used for boarding livestock, recreation, or as land for new settlers. The size varied from pueblo to pueblo and contained approximately 16 to 20 suertes measuring up to one sitio. Ejidos were also used earlier in colonial times for the size of native villages, for common threshing land and public grazing pasture. |
| hacienda: | Farm, ranch, or property estate usually associated with a wealthy land owner and his family. |
| plaza: | Town square or center. |
| propio: | Public lands or property that was rented from the sovereign's Regal Lands for a term of 5 years in order to pay for municipal expenses |
| pueblo: | Town or village populated mostly by common people. |
N.B. For other area values, based on varas different from the Vara de Burgos, simply multiply the values shown by the square of the ratio: [New vara value/Burgos vara value]. Although obvious, care should be taken when expressing square or squared units. For example: 100 square varas are not the same as 100 varas squared. The former can be represented by a square with 10 varas to a side; the latter is an area of 10,000 square varas.
| Avina, Rose. SPANISH AND MEXICAN LAND GRANTS IN CALIFORNIA. M.A. thesis, Berkeley: University of California at Berkeley, History 1932: 19. Printed by R&E Research Associates, San Francisco, CA 1973.
Barnes, T.C., Thomas N. Naylor and Charles W. Polzer.
Bowman, J.N.
Haggard, J. Villasana.
Meigs, III, Peveril.
Perez, Crisostomo N.
Stampa, Manuel Carrera.
Wattles, Gurdon (orig. William Wattles). N.B. Be especially careful using these references as there may be serious errors (e.g. Perez, p. 238).
The cordeleros photo is one in a collection purchased by the author at a
Westerners-Los Angeles Corral auction. It appears to be a still from a film on early California history, but there is no indication of the film's title, its date, the photographer, or the studio. If any reader of this article recognizes this picture and knows its origin, please contact the author by means of the CMSA email address. |
WEBSITES
| Anglo-Saxon Weights & Measures
A Chronology of the SI Metric System Measures from Antiquity and the Bible
|
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